" စိတ္ကူးတုိ႔၏ ကြန္႔ျမဴးရာ အႏုပညာတုိ႔ရဲ႕ ေပါင္းစည္းရာ မိမိဖန္တီးထားတဲ့ ဒီဘေလာ႔ရပ္၀န္းေလးမွ မိတ္ေဆြအား ေႏြးေထြးစြာ ႀကိဳဆုိပါသည္...။

Monday, March 12, 2012

A Study of the Role of Buddhist Monks in Myanmar (in brief)


The early Buddhists of India had a strong inclination to carry their religion, and with it their civilization, into the lands which lay beyond their immediate frontiers. The Indian emperor Asoka sent missions to various places which bordered on his empire. One of these, to the east, is called in the Pali chronicles Suvannadipa (Golden Island), somewhere in the same direction, Indonesian archipelago respectively. Modern usage has accustomed us to thinking of hard and fast lines dividing from India all those lands to the east, which we think of not an Indian but as Myanmar. When we study historical background of Buddhism in Myanmar, The first inhabitants of Myanmar belonged probably to Austro-Asiatic group but they have left no pursuable traces. They were replaced by Tibeto-Burman tribes, who came from eastern Tibet in the beginning of the Christian era. The oldest of them known by name were the Pyu, the Kanran, the Arakanese and the Thet, who may be the ancestors of the Chin. Other ethnic groups were Talaings (Mon) in the south-east of the country and the Karens in the east. The Shans appeared much later, in the 10th century.

The Pyus found empires of city-kingdoms in the Irrawaddy Valley. Similarly, like in other South-East Asian countries, the Pyus were under strong and wide influence of the Indian religion and culture, which came into the country through migration and trade. According to Harvey the cultural influence from India took root not earlier than A.D. 300. However, Hinduism could have come to the land long before. In Myanmar tradition, the Pyus are considered to be pious Buddhists but the excavations give evidence that both Hinduism and Buddhism coexisted. The oldest known Pyu cities carried names related to Hinduism (Sri Ksetra, Baitkhano – Visnu). The Hindu religion left its traces in royal ceremonies, arts, law and astrology. Some of the Hindu gods and goddesses eventually became members of the indigenous animistic religion and Nat- spirits pantheon. Although the Pyu are extinct, their civilisation is often regarded as a part of Myanmar heritage, as it absorbed Pyu culture.

According to Myanmar belief, Buddhism arrived into the country soon after Siddhattha Gotama the founder of the religion, was enlightened and became Buddha. The story tells of two merchant brothers from Lower Burma, who went on a journey to pay homage to the Buddha and received eight strands of his hair to venerate. The merchants were the first lay followers of the Buddha and the first people who took refuge in him and the Dhamma and his teachings, before the Sangha, the community of monks, began to exist. The offered strands were enshrined inside the Shwedagon pagoda by King Okalappa; and the place became the most precious treasure for all the people of Myanmar, a symbol of both religion and country.

Traditionally, Myanmar historians mention four more advents of Buddhism in Myanmar, among them two visits of the Buddha during his lifetime. An Arakanese legend relates to his personal visit to the Arakan state, where he left his engraved image, later to be known as the Mahamuni statue. The other arrivals of Buddhism are connected with historically documented events. The first is related to the visit of the Indian king to the Asoka’s missionaries, Sona and Uttara in the III A.D to Suvarnabhumi and another with the work of Buddhaghosa, one of the greatest Buddhist commentators (IV-V A.D.). The people of Myanmar believe that he was a native Mon from Tha-ton who brought the Tipitaka, the Buddhist Pali canon, and other scriptures in Pali from Sri Lanka However, before the Theravada school, one of the South Indian schools of Buddhism, came into existence as the religion of the court and spread its influence over the people, there existed different schools of Buddhism. Among them some obscure Buddhist Mahayana cults were practiced, similar to those known in Bengal and the Malay Archipelago. The most powerful one was the order of Ari monks, which was remarkably different from the Theravada school. Ari monks were not celibate; were well skilled in martial arts, were known for indulgence, and corrupted the doctrine. They practiced Tantr- cults and magic, selling spells and absolution from sins.

Since the 11th century, with the beginning of the Bagan dynasty, Theravada started to prevail, the Ari cult was eradicated and Buddhism infiltrated many aspects of the Myanmar culture. King Anawrahta (AD 1044-77) and his religious guide Shin Arahan, a monk from Thaton, undertook many endeavours in order to purify the existing religion and establish the Theravada order. Having been refused Tipitaka from Mon Kingdom (with the capital in Thaton), Anawrahta organised a military expedition in 1057 and consequently brought home not only the Canon but also learned monks, artists and the Mon king Manuha himself. As a result, the Bagan kingdom assimilated the Mon culture and soon became a centre of religious learning. Pali, the language of the Buddhist canon, became the sacred language of learning and literature and enriched the indigenous languages. Anawrahta’s successors continued his tasks; most of them were pious Buddhists, such as Kyanzittha [A.D. 1084-1112], who was well-known for his religious reforms and the promotion of Buddhism in the region. From the time of Pagan up to present day of affairs of religion in Myanmar, Tentative scheme of a brief of discussion will provide as follow:

1. Introduction

2. Life Style of Buddhist monks in Myanmar

3. Contribution of Buddhist Literatures and architectures of Myanmar

4. Relationship between Monks and Kings in Myanmar

5. Conclusion

(1) INTRODUCTION

In this first chapter, I shall discuss Historical background of Buddhism in Myanmar. Myanmar people claim based upon legends, history, inscriptions and epigraphs as well as monuments and arts and Buddhist architectures that Buddhism came to Myanmar at least five times by land and by sea. (See also above introduction). The first arrival of Buddhism took place in the very year of the Buddha’s enlightenments i.e. Mahā Sakarit year 103.The legend of Shwe Dagon Pagoda. Yangon is the story of the first arrival of Buddha Sāsana to Myanmar. It tells us that in the very year Gotama Buddha became enlightened under the Bodhi Tree in Uruvelā forest near the Nerangarā River in India, the two merchant brothers. Taphussa and Bhallika, natives of Pokkharavatītown in Ukkalāpa province of the Kingdom of Rāmaññadesa come to India to trade with 500 bullock carts of merchandizes. When they heard good tidings of Gotama’s attainment of Buddhahood they went to see and worship Gotama Buddha, whom, they offered honeyed cakes. They received the Dhamma his teachings. On return they requested the Buddha to give them something which they would worship as His representative, whereupon the Buddha stroke His Head and got eight strand of Hair which were given to the two brothers. The two brothers took the sacred Hairs home. King Ukkalāpa and the two brothers enshrined the sacred hairs in an old Stupa on Siñguttara Hill.That is the story of the first arrival of Buddha Sāsanā to Myanmar.

The second arrival of the Buddha Sāsanā took place in the Maha Sakarit year 111 in the 8th vasa of the Buddha. His disciple monk Mahāthera Gavampati entreated the Buddha to visit his native town Thaton. The Buddha came with his disciple monks and preached the Dhamma to the king and his people of Thaton. Then he offered six strands of His hair to six hermits who enshrined them each in one Stupa. Thirty seven years after Mahā Sakarit 111, i.e. 148th year, the Buddha entered into Mahāparinivāna (Demise). Un-burnt teeth of the Buddha’s mortal remains were taken to Thaton (Suvannabhūmi). The king of Thaton enshrined them; each in one Stupa.This is the story of the Second arrival of the Buddha Sāsanā to Myanmar. The third arrival of Buddha Sāsanā to Myanmar has two stories which happened in the same year but at two different places and under different circumstances. Firstly, in the Mahā Sakarit year 123, in the 20th vasa of the Buddha, while he was residing at jetavana Vihāra, his disciple monk Mahāthera Punna invited the Buddha to visit his native village named Sunaparanta vānijagāma in Upper Myanmar. The Buddha came with 500 Arahants (saint monks) and resided in a sandal wood monastery specially built. He preached the Dhamma to the local populace who became Buddhist. Before the Buddha return to Jetavana Vihara, he left two footprints, one at the foot and one on the summit of Minbu hill range. Two Pāda Cetīs were built enshrining two Buddha’s footprints. Also a kyaung-daw ya cetī was built on the site of the sandal wood monastery. Mahāthere Punna and his disciple monks propagated Buddhism and many people embraced Buddhism. Secondly in the same MahāSakarit year and in the same vasa of the Buddha, so Rakhine chronicle claims, The Buddha visited Daññvatī kingdom in Rakhine. King Candasūriya and his people after hearing the teachings of the Buddha became Buddhist. At the request of the king and his people the Buddha allowed them to cast an alloy image of Him and breathed His breath into it. The image is well-known as Mahā Muni Image which is now housed in a gilt temple at Mandalay.

The fourth arrival to Myanmar of Buddha Sāsanā was post- Buddha event that happened in the Buddhist Era 236. It was in that year that Buddhist Emperor of India Asoka of pātaliputta convened the Third Buddhist Council. Mahāthera Moggaliputt Tissa, Mahā Nāyaka of the Council advised Emperor Asoka to send out Buddhist missions to nine places and nine countries to propagate Buddhism. Asoka’s monk son Mahathera mahinda was sent to Lankādipa (Sri Lanka). Mahatheras Sona and Uttara accompanied by Mahātheras Anurudha, Tissagupta and Soneyya were sent to Thaton. Buddha Sāsanā which arrived there before had declined. King Siri Ma of Thaton and his people after hearing the Dhamma preached by Mahātheras Sona and Uttara became Buddhist. Buddhism revived. 60,000 bhikkhus became Arahat, 3500 men and 1500 women entered monkhood.The fifth arrivl of Buddha sāsana to Myanmar was somewhat associated with the fourth Buddhist Council convened in the Buddhist year 450 in linkādipa by King Vattagāmani. Mahāthera Dhammarakkhita presided over the Council and 500 Arahats attended it. Tipitaka were translated into Magadha and Atthakathās (commentaries) were rendered into Sri Lankan language. All religious literatures were inscribed on palm leaf. It was the first recording in writing of Tipitaka and commentaries. In the Buddhist year 930(circa A.D.386), Mahāthera buddhaghosa was invited by his guru monk MahātheraRevata to residence at this Vihara for over a decade Mahāthera buddhaghosa translated into Magadha commentaries written in Sri Lankan language. Later he brought to King Dhammapāla of Thaton his translated work. That is the short story of the Fifth arrival of Buddha Sāsanā to Myanmar in written form. Myanmar is proud to claim that it received Buddha Sāsanā in the very year of Gotama Buddha’s enlightenment and that thanks to repeated advent of it and continuous support of successive kings, governments and people Buddhism flourishes till today.

(II) Life Style of Buddhist monks in Myanmar

In this second chapter, especially I would like to discuss about Monkhood-from meditative mendicants and renounces to active members of the civil society. When we take in to consider life style of Buddhist monks in Myanmar, the role of monks should be mentioned the important ace of Meditation. Buddha taught renunciation of the material world by means of spiritual practice in order to attain salvation Nibban. He advised his disciples to cultivate a walk of life that strikes a balance, the middle way – the avoidance of two extremes, such as uncontrolled indulgence in sensual pleasures on the one hand, and on the other, unnecessary self-mortification leading to exhaustion of the body and mind. The cultivation of Sila (morality), Panna (wisdom) and Bhavana (meditation) leads to the cessation of Tanha (craving, thirst or desire), which he considered to be the cause of suffering, endless rebirths and infinite entanglement in the worldly matters. The Buddha and his first disciples were wandering mendicants, living in the forest, eating “what was given”, wearing rags found in a cemetery, with neither a permanent place to live nor any possessions.

The growing popularity of Buddha’s teachings, which increased the number of followers and highlighted the necessity for a retreat during the rainy season, were the main reasons for the disciples to settle down and found monasticism. Soon the need for the establishment of basic rules and regulations for the new community emerged, with the aim to avoid corruption and abuse of the original teachings and to regulate the discipline of monks. The moral code of a monk is called Vinaya. There are 227 rules that a monk should respect.

All of these rules are not only precisely elaborated, but they also cover all aspects of a monk’s life and conduct, his relationship with the lay community, his way of dressing, taking food or acquiring and keeping properties. Respecting the rules is indeed the only way to make extinct desire (Tanha) and to follow the way leading to salvation.

In the handbook „How to Live as a Good Buddhist”, edited by the Department for the Promotion and Propagation of Sasana, the duties of the order are defined as follows: The community of Ariya Sangha11 serves mankind by constantly practicing morality and highest purity. They serve as Nobel Ideal to follow, deserving respect, devotion and veneration from devotees. The Bhikkhu Sangha by learning original scriptures, by practicing and by realization of highest truths, serves other by example, respect and teaching. Since they alone preserve the original Sasana handed down from teacher to pupil, the devotees pay them due respect and support. They serve both Sasana and people by teaching scriptures, learning, practicing, and reaching the goal of Nibbana are three aspects of the task of the Bhikkhu Sangha, past and present. At present, about 90 percent of Myanmar’s populations are Buddhist and an estimated 500000 inhabitants are practicing monkhood.

Recent events in Myanmar, particularly the “Saffron Revolution” in 2007 and cyclone Nargis in 2008 placed Myanmar monks in the focus of the international community. Not for the first time in history, the Myanmar Sangha took a leading important role in times of emergency, and was able to mobilise rapidly their forces in order to help and represent the people of Myanmar. In 1988 they went to the streets with other citizens to call for democratic and economic reforms in the country. Similarly, in 2007, monks participated in the nation-wide protests against rising fuel and commodity prices. The visible and silent support of the monks provided encouragement and moral guidance for the predominantly Buddhist nation. Facing the post-Nargis devastation and indecisiveness related to access of international humanitarian aid, Myanmar monks be-came the only organised group able to respond promptly with aid for traumatised victims, providing them with shelter and distributing basic commodities in their communities.

According to Professor, Dr Khin Maung Nyunt, Sangha had a sort of constitutional check upon the ruler. Some of the traditions and customary practices were preventive measures against despotism and tyranny. The monks were forbidden to be involved in secular matters and politics, but they could act as advisers. The head of the order appointed by the king, the Thasanabing or other distinguished teachers could even admonish the king, demand to pardon a condemned person and stand up for the subjects in times of natural disasters, to lessen their obligations to-wards the state. Sometimes kings entrusted political missions to monks, as in the case of the Mongol invasion and occupation of the country in the 14th century, to settle the conflict peace-fully. One case is known where a monk became king (Dhammazedi – 1453-1472), chosen for his wisdom by queen Shin Saw Pu (1453-1472) as her successor to the throne. Generally, kings and Sangha were dependent on each other, cooperating and balancing each other with mutual respect.

The Myanmar Sangha is not homogenous and the scope of monks’ activities is complex. As a monk is perceived as a renouncer of the world, the question arises to what extent he should be engaged in the social and political life of the country? The purpose of this work is to intro-duce the reader to Myanmar Buddhist society and to give some ideas about the role of the monks in contemporary Myanmar. Another fact is that they enjoy a visibly better material status than most of their followers. The first impression would of course be different, if the first encounter was taking place in a meditation centre, where the way of life is strictly regulated and most of the monks are meditating, or in any of the Buddhist academic centres, where monks specialise in Pali language and Tipitaka. In the villages, a monk is under stronger surveillance of the community and is mostly concerned with traditional rites and services. However, regardless of the place they live and their intellectual level, monks enjoy the highest respect from society. It must also be stressed that the general respect they enjoy is not directed to an individual monk but to the robe he wears, which is the symbol of the Buddha. Monks might not be ideal, but they strive for an ideal and that is important. In Myanmar’s culture, there are three kinds of people worthy of being worshipped: monks are the first, before parents and teachers. The Above mentioned historical facts are a brief of the life style of Buddhist monks in Myanmar.

In conclusion, the modest and austere life of the Sangha is rather a rare ideal. Contemporary monks asked about their strivings for liberation and becoming an Arahant (a Buddhist saint) usually answers that it is difficult, and they doubt if it is still possible in the present life. They often claim that the Parami (the perfections) are also important on the way to Nibba, so first they should fulfill them.

(III) Contribution of Buddhist Literatures and architectures of Myanmar

Actually, in this third chapter, our research work is very wider scope if we discuss the contribution of Buddhist literatures and architectures of Myanmar. Therefore, I shall discuss some very important contribution of Buddhist literatures and architectures of Myanmar as possible as from the point of research view. For example, with regard to Pali literature contribution in Pagan Ava Era etc, through the Burmese began their literary history by borrowing from their conquered neighbors, the Talainga- and not before the eleventh century. The growth of Pali scholarship among them was so repaid that the epoch following close on this tardy beginning is considered one of the best that Burma has seen. The works then produced supplied the material or afforded the favorite models for much of the Pali-Burmese literature of later times.

The King Anorata, mindful of Arahantas counsels was eager to enrich his city with the sacred texts. Those brought from Thation had been stored in a splendid pavilion (38) and placed at the disposal of the Sangha for study. Not content with his large spoils the king sent to Ceylon for more copies of the Tipitaka, which Arahanta afterwards examined and compared with the Thaton collection (39) so the ground was prepared for the harvest that soon followed. Anorata did not live to see the first fruits of his husbandry,(40), but, The first essay of a Burmese author in Pali scholarship was made in the year 1064 A.D. during the reign of Kyansittha a son of Anorata(41).

During the time of Kyansittha a son of Anorata, at the Ananda temple or Vihara monastery at Pagan, Dhammasenapati wrote the Karika a grammatical work in Pali(43). Dhammasenpati composed two other works, the Etimasamidipani (or Etimisamidipika) and the Manohara(44). Nangambhira of Pagan is the author of the religious work Tathagatupatti. During the reigns of Anorata immediate successors learning took firm root at Pagan and in the year 1154 the monk Aggavamsa completed the Saddaniti a grammar of the Tipitaka described as the most comprehensive in existence. It established the reputation of Burmese scholarship in that age and the fame of the author to the present day. It consists of aphorisms on Pali grammar divided into twenty-five Paricchedas or sections. It is very interesting to see that in the second part of the work the Dhatumala) Garland of Roots) the grammarian gives the Sanskrit equivalents of the Pali forms. Ancient Pagan was the cradle of Pali-Burmese literature. The Saddaniti was the first return gift of Burma to Ceylon. A few years after its completion the Thera (elder) Uttarajiva left Pagan and crossed the sea to visit the celebrated Mahavihara,(48), taking with him a copy of the Saddaniti which was received with enthusiastic admiration and declared superior to any work of the kind written by Sinhalese scholars. The works usually ascribed to Saddhammajotipala otherwise Chapata or Chappada represent the second stage in the monastic scholarship of his time and country.

The Suttaniddesa or Kaccayanasuttaniddesa is a grammatical treatise explaining the sutras of Indian grammarian kaccayana(49). The suttaniddesa as a work originally ascribed to Kaccayana introduced by Chapata into Burma. Chapata is the author and say that he wrote at Arimaddana (Pagan). He composed the Suttaniddes at the request of his pupil Dhammacari. His other well known work is the Sankhepavannana. Above mentioned contribution of Buddhist literatures is just example. In this chapter, I shall discuss further more contributions of Buddhist literatures of Myanmar.

With regard to Buddhist architectures of Myanmar, I would like to say that every country has its own cultural identities according to its famous and mostly symbolic facts. For example Great Wall of China, Taj Mahal of India, Eifel Tower of France, Kamakura Buddha Statue of Japan and also Shwedagon Pagoda of Myanmar. Myanmar has so many identities which are outstanding because of Myanmar traditional architectural designs, costumes, arts and crafts and other traditional symbolic styles of cultural properties. Myanmar Civilization started 2000 years ago. Tangible and intangible cultural properties are very rich among over 135 Myanmar ethnic groups. Major ethnic groups are Kachin, Kayin, Chin, Kayar, Mon, Myanmar, Rakhine and Shan and they have different languages, literatures, customs, costumes, traditions and religions. Moreover, they have their traditional music and dances of their own styles.

In case we need, we have to show some photograph and pictures when we discuss about Buddhist architectures of Myanmar. One of the famous pagodas about architectures of Myanmar is “Damayangye’’at Bagan ancient city (3rd century to 13th century). Damayangye was built in A.D. 1170 by King Narathu. Its height is 144 feet and 270 feet width at the base. It is also famous for its thickness in Bagan Area. Damayangye is famous for its wonderful architectural design. It is one of the identities of Myanmar famous pagodas. See some photos in webpage.

I’d like to mentioned architecture of the Myanmar identity “Shwedagon Pagoda’’. Here the whole pagoda was completely covered with pure gold plates. The original pagoda was encased by the recent Shwedagon Pagoda which was built over 2500 years ago when the Lord Buddha was still living. The pagoda was only 66 feet high when it was first built. Now Shwedagon Pagoda is (336) feet high and circumference of its base is 1429 feet. Most of the buildings around the pagoda are decorated with the best specimens of Myanmar painting and sculpture which show the skillful craftsmanship of Myanmar. Shwedagon is the earliest pagoda and the holiest place of worship for Buddhists all over the world and practically the whole complex is like a museum. So Myanmar people fully pay respect to this pagoda which was lastly renovated by king Sinphyushin of Konebaung Dynasty in 18th century. We can compare architectural designs of Damayangye and Shwedagon.

Kyansittha was the founder of the celebrated Nanda Ananda temple and vihara monastery at Pagan. The legend goes that the temple was designed from a vision of the Nandamula cave in the Himalaya granted to the king by eight saints of that region, who journeyed through the air daily to receive Kyansittha’s hospitality. These miraculous visits are of smaller intrest to us than another less sensational tradition of the holy place.

According to Myanmar chronicles there were 55 kings who ruled Bagan. The date of Bagan began from A.D. 108 and ended at A.D. 136. All Bagan kings were promoters of Buddhism, so they built many pagodas and monasteries and set up stone inscriptions to record their merits. Some prominent and world renown kings were Anawrahta (A.D 1044-1077), kyansittha( A.D. 1084-1113), Alaungsithu ( A.D. 1113-1167), Narapatisithu (A.D.j 1174-12111), Htilominlo (A.D. 1211-1234),and Narathihapate(A.D. 1255-1285).

Bagan pagodas may be classified into two types, the first is the bell-shaped Stupa of solid brickwork built on receding terraces and crowned by a finial. This type is called cedi or Cetiya in Pāli. Zedi was erected either to enshrine some relics of the Buddha or of a Buddhist saint or to commemorate some sacred spot. The second type is a hollow vaulted structure mainly for housing Buddha image. It is a square in design with sometimes projecting porches or vestibules. Receding roofs rise above the main structure with a bell-shaped Stupa or a curvilinear finial on its top.

King Anawrahta built this Pagoda in A.D. 1059 but he left it in an unfinished state. It was king Kyansittha who completed it in A.D. 1090. This Pagoda is now 945 years old.

History of the Pagoda tells us that king Anawrahta brought to Bagan a sacred relic of the Buddha’s frontal bone recovered from an old Stupa in Thaye Khittaya( Srikestra). It was carried ceremonially on the back of a white elephant. According to his wish the Pagoda was built on a sandy site where the white elephant knelt down. This sandy site was named “Zeya bhumi” meaning ‘the Land of Victory “because it was believed to be an auspicious plave for building Shwezigon Pagoda. The frontal bone and a replica of the Buddha’s sacred tooth Relic presented by the king of Sri Lanka were enshrined in the Pagoda. The Pagoda was built of stone blocks brought by a human chain from the quarries at the Tuyin Hills about 7 miles away from the site of the Pagoda construction. Pious devotees lined up turn along that distance and stone blocks were passed on by hands to the construction site.

The pagoda is a solid cylindrical structure resting on three square terraces, a proto type of Myanmar stupas. It has a gold waist- band around the bell-shaped dome above which rises a series of concentric moldings ending in a finial and crowned with an umbrella.

Around the terraces of the Pagoda there are, set in panels, enameled laques illustrating the scenes in the previous lives of the Buddha. One each of the four sides of the Pagoda is a hall which enshrines a standing bronze Buddha statue, 13 feet high of the Gupta School of art.

These four bronze statues are gilded with gold foils. They face four cardinal directions, representing four Buddhas who had attained Nirvana. They were kakusanda Buddha facing north, kongamana Buddha facing east, Kassap Buddha facing south and Gotama Buddha facing west.

Shwezigon Pagoda is held in great veneration by the Buddhists of the whole of Myanmar and also of the world. Myanmar kings used to visit and worship this Pagoda, after they ascended the throne. King Bayint Naung visited Shwezigon in 1557 and among many works of religious merit he carried out at this pagoda was a big bronze bell cast and dedicated to this pagoda. The bell bearing inscriptions in Pāli, Mon and Myanmar, recording Bayint Naung’s military exploits and works of social and religious merits, is still hung on the crossbar on two posts near the entrance of the eastern causeway. King Hisn-byu-shin (A.D.1763-1776) topped the pagoda with a new hit. This deed of merit was recorded in the inscription on six stone slabs now housed in a hall on the east side of the pagoda. Works of merit by clergy and laity have been accumulated within the precincts. There are many interesting, artistic and historical objects dedicated to the pagoda.

Chief Minister kin wun Mingyi (A.D. 1822-1908) composed a verse about nine wonders if Shwezigon pagoda. This very was inscribed on a big alms bowl of stone dedicated to the pagoda. It is on the north side. The history of Shwezigon pagoda was written in old Mon on all faces of two square stone pillars standing on the right and left of the eastern cause- way.

Regarding Bagan monuments there are many sayings in Myanmar. One of them is

Mass that is Dhammayangyi

Height that is Thatbyinnu

Grace that is Ananda.

(ဆိုရိုး ထုမွာ ဓမၼရံ၊ ဥာဏ္မွာ သဗၺညု၊ အနုမွာ အာနႏၵာ).

The three temples Dhammayangyi, Thatbyinnu and Ananda are noted for their unique architectures in massiveness, loftiness and gracefulness respectively. Built by king Narathu (A.D. 1167-1170) Dhammayangyi is the most massive and colossal structure among Bagan monuments. Though this massive temple was unfinished due to the untimely end of its donor, its strong and sound architecture in attested by its durability and withstanding in spite of natural elements, earthquake, wars and old age. Most of the arches and major portion of the structure are still sound. The finest brick work is seen in this Temple and enclosure wall.

Besides, later period of Kun Baung dynasty, the official name of Mandalay given by King Mindon (A.D.1853-1878) was Yadanapon, meaning “the City of Gems.” Only two kings resided at Mandalay-King Mindon and successor King Thibaw (A.D.1878-1885) who was the last Myanmar King. Because Amarapura the previous capital about 7 miles south of Mandalay became overpopulated King Mindon decided to move to Mandalay. The foundation of Mandalay was begun in 1856-57, on the plan of square and oblong blocks of dwellings. Ii was formally occupied in 1859. The palace city was situated in the centre surrounded by moats and city walls which were almost square in shape.

Inside the Mandalay Palace City, right in its centre, stood the Mandalay Palace officially named “Mya Nan San Kyaw.” It was a complex of several buildings erected on an oblong platform raised above the ground. Almost all buildings were built of teak elaborately carved and thickly gilt. Until it was bombed and burnt down to ashes be the allied war planes at the close of the Second World War, the palace complex was preserved by the Archaeology Department as National Monument.

Based upon the archives, records, photographs and historical writings, Mandalay Palace was reconstructed on its site and on its original design in 1991.There are113 buildings on the palace platform. The main buildings are Myey-nan-taw that comprised the Lion Throne Room in the middle with a seven-tiered spire above on the roof, the two large Audience Halls each on either side of the Throne Room, Hmanan Hall (Glass Palace), the Conference Hall, the Watch Tower, seven other throne rooms, chief queen’s house, the meeting hall of ministers, Royal Treasury, Royal Archives and Records etc.

There are many religious monuments and buildings pagodas, temples, shrines, ordination halls, and monasteries, meditation centers in and around Mandalay, belonging to different periods of Myanmar history. Four hills namely Mandalay Hill, Mei U Hill and Yeyta-gun Hill which lie to the north, north east and east of Mandalay are dotted with pagodas, caves and monasteries. It is said that when Mindon founded Mandalay he planned it on the model of ancient capital Rajagaha in India where Lord Buddha had resided, which was surrounded by hills, lakes and parks with several religious monuments and monasteries.

A sumptuous temple houses a huge Image of the Buddha well-known as “Maha Muni”, which means “the Exalted Saint”. People in Mandalay call it “Paya-gyi”(Great Buddha). The Image was brought from Rakhine State in A.D.1784 by the son and heir of King Bodawpaya (A.D. 1782-1819) by land over the mountain ranges and by watervia the Ayeyarwaddy River. The Image was housed in a large temple constructed at the capital Amarapura. In 1884 the temple caught fire but the Image was saved.

The temple has a terraced roof of gilded stucco which is of modern construction: the original roof was wood burnt down in 1884. Four entrances facing the cardinal point lead to the central shrine. The passages were once adorned with frescoes; those on the north side depicted the event of bringing the image from Rakhine state. But now, owing to repairs and renovations many had been wiped out and only few remain. In the inner courtyard are a number of stone slabs inscribed, by order of king Bodawpaya, with copies of inscriptions recording religious endowments.

To the south-east of the shrine is a large tank of turtles and fish. Mahā Muni image was accompanied by numerous image attendants and captives who were afterwards settled in the area around the temples to give religious service to the image. In the courtyard at the north-east corner is a stone inscription recording the manner in which the image was brought from Rakhine state.

This pagoda is commonly known as Kutho Daw Gyi (the Great Royal Religious Bounty). It was built in 1857 by king Mindon on the model of Shwezigon at Bagan. The distinctive feature of this pagoda is the collection of 279 white marble slabs on which the Buddhist canon (Tipitaka) were inscribed as edited by the Fifth Buddhist synod which king Mindon convened in A.D. 1871 at his capital Mandalay.

These sacred stone slabs are housed, each in a cavelike brick building. The slabs comprise Vinaya on 111slabs, Sutta on 410 and Abhidhamma on 208 slabs (The Disciplines, the Discourses and the philosophy respectively). In other words, this Pagoda contains an authorized version of the Buddhist Bible, which is prized by all oriental scholars. The collection of these stone slabs is unique in the Buddhist World. It is the largest marble book in the World. I discuss above mentioned some important Buddhist architecture of Myanamr in brief.

(IIII) Relationship between Monks and Kings in Myanmar

Bagan’s political power waned after the 12th century. Due to the weakness of the central power, the country broke into fragmentary principalities, but incipient dynasties, in spite of periods of unrest, strove to be the patrons and propagators of religion, with very few exemptions. Myanmar’s kings traced their origin back to Buddha’s Sakya dynasty. The Buddhist doctrine of Kamma, placed the king in the highest position, as one could only become a ruler after the accumulation of the greatest merit in former lives. The King was believed to be the Cakkavatin a righteous, universal ruler, who rested his rule on the principle of Dhamma, whose duty was to disseminate and support the religion and to protect his people. The King was also believed to be the Bodhisattva, the incarnation of future Buddhas. Professor Scholar Khin Maung Nyunt comments: all Myanmar kings whether noble or tyrant, tried to be noble patron of religion, promoter, and supporter of Buddhism, and defender of faith by building religious monuments for enshrining sacred relics and objects, by building residences for the monks, rest houses for sheltering travelers and pilgrims, by digging wells, tanks, dams and canals for supply of water for public use and cultivation and by doing many other meritorious deeds.

An account of Buddhist life in Burma (Myanmar) during the reign of King Min Don is contained in the Pali Chronicle entitled Sasanavamsa. This is the work of the king's own tutor, Venerable Pannasami, whose account of Burmese Buddhist History takes the readers as far as the year 1860, three years after founding of the city of Mandalay by king Mindon. As the author says, in almost the last words of his account: This is the founding of the Sasana in the city of Ratanapunna(i.e, Mandalay). The "Sasana" whose history he has been writing, the Sasana which he had now seen established in the new capital city of Mandalay, consisted of a particular pattern of relationship between Burmese kings and Buddhist monks in which Pannasami he had a special interest. According to this chronicle, elsewhere in his chronicle he declare that "under the patronage of the righteous kings this religion of the supreme Buddha (Sammasambuddhasasamanm) in Myanmar(Burma country) was made to shine greatly, and it come to growth, prosperity, and full of development. He adds that its prosperity was not only the work of kings but all of the royal people as well as "also all the inhabitants of the kingdom, who were obedient to their kings, and supported by the righteous kings, were the helpers of the religion (Sasana-Upasakas).

During the time of kingdom, as a chief monk, since the king's teacher was holder of the title of "Had of Sasana" or in Burmese (Myanmar) Sasana-baing, it is evident that the royally supported Buddhist establishment was regarded as representing orthodoxy or higher position in Buddhist Order. It means he is honoured with eminent title of Thathanapaing(Sasanabaing) meaning that he has power and control over all that appertains to religion. The keystone of Buddhist fabric is the superlatively great master residing in the capital or its suburbs. His jurisdiction extends over all the fraternity within the realm of his Burmese (Myanmar) Majesty. His position near the seat of Government his capacity of king's master or teacher must have at all times conferred upon him a very great degree of influence over all his subordinates.

The role of the king was to perpetuate the Sangha, the Buddha’s teachings, and to protect them from corruption and dispersion. This could only be done by enforcing the rules of a monk’s moral code by means of control. The king appointed the head of the Sangha, the so-called Sasanabaing, and ensured the rule of order through ecclesiastical hierarchy. At the same time, he ruled with the support of the Buddhist order and its prestige. Without the king’s strong central support, the ecclesiastical hierarchy the order easily divided and declined. During colonial times, the secularisation of Burma caused a weakening of the order. Prominent Buddhist teachers appealed to the British to assume religious duties of the former rulers as patrons. But due to the policy of non-interference in religious matters, the British response was rather superficial and not effective. This negligence, in effect, was one of the reasons for growing nationalism with a strong Buddhist religious background and the beginning of the resistance movement. In 1906, the Young Men's Buddhist Association was established with the objective to promote: national spirit, national language and literature, Buddhist doctrine and education in general. The YMBA developed in 1920 into the General Council of Burmese Associations, which advocated constitutional reforms and staged a strike at Rangoon University against University Act perceived to be restrictive for Burmese. Buddhist clergy took an active part in national resistance movement. The most prominent among them were U Wisara and U Ottama who applied a non-violent strategy in the struggle. In 1930-1932 Saya San, a Buddhist monk initiated the first armed resistance, which turned into national revolt.

After independence, the new authorities were aware of the role of Buddhism for national identity in the new state. Prime Minister U Nu organised the Sixth Buddhist Synod and invited the most learned Buddhist monks from all Theravada countries to recite and edit the Tipitaka and commentaries. His achievement is to declare Buddhism as the official state or country religion in 1961. Myanmar is a Buddhist country where Theravāda Buddhism predominates. Even though Prime Minister U Nu declares Buddhism as the official state religion in 1961, there is no state religion but all other religions peacefully co-exist with it. Ministry for Religious Affairs takes charge of all religions in the country. At present, Myanmar authorities follow the example of the past regarding the support and still being aware of the potential strength of the Buddhist Sangha and its moral impact on the nation.

As stated in the Brochure of “The Department for the Promotion and Propagation of Sasana of the Ministry of Religious Affairs, monks and novices in Myanmar live inside the system of hierarchy and according to the Vinaya rules, free from the direct administration of the government. In 1980, nine Myanmar Buddhist sects were united in one body of monks and novices. After having elected one thousand, three hundred were appointed to the Sangha Central Working Committee and then forty seven of their members were chosen to organise the Executive Committee – the State Sangha Mahanayaka Committee. One hundred Sayadaws from different parts of the country are organised in the State Ovadacariya Committee, the advisory board supervising the different levels of Sangha organizations.

Under the leadership of the Sangha Mahanayaka Committee there are different levels of organisations: State and Division, Town-ship, Village and Wards Committees. There are also three judicial levels of Vinaya Judi-cal Courts: Township Vinicchaya Courts State and Division Vinicchaya Courts and the Highest Vinicchaya Courts. The government of Myanmar sponsors the state Pali examinations and confers the titles. The basic one – Pathamabyan Pali Examination has four levels. To continue their education, students may sit for the Dhammacariya examinations, testing their knowledge of Tipitaka and conferring them the title of Sasana Dhajadhammacariya. There is also an Honorary Dhammacariya examination, which confers students, the title of Sasana Dhaja Siripavara Dhammacariya. For especially talented candidates, there are Tipitaka Dhara (The Bearer of Three Baskets) Examinations. A candidate must be able to memorise at least one of the three baskets in the term of five years. If he passes all three examinations, he obtains the title of Tipitaka Dhara or Tipitakakovida or Tipitaka Dhammabandagarika. The successful candidates are held in highest respect in the country. The conferring of the title is accompanied by donations and con-vocation ceremonies. Pitakadharas enjoy special facilities as free travel by air, water and road and they receive monthly cash donations by the government. All ceremonies are sponsored by the government and held annually. In this chapter I described some data and information about relationship between Buddhist monks' and kings or government of Myanmar as possible as.

(IIIII) Conclusion

In this conclusion, we should not neglect Mutual exchange between Sangha and lay society in Myanmar. The formally organised and numerous Sangha certainly cannot exist without the material sup-port of the lay people in the field of basic needs such as food, habitat or clothing. This obvious material dependence on the lay society from the very beginning seems to have created a need for a religious option for the lay supporters, since the Buddha’s doctrine was based on the renunciation of the material world. The moral code for laity is simple and embodied in five precepts, also known as Panccasila: not to kill, not to steal, not to commit adultery, not to lie and not to use intoxicants. There are also a few Buddhist Suttas concerned with the life of a layman and the most important of them is the Mangala Sutta, (Sutta of Blessings). It is composed of 38 so-called “blessings” or moral guidance notes related to various aspects of life, for instance social association, good living, education and skills, meditation practice, avoidance of sin, nobility, mental maturity, achievement of Nibbana.

But the main religious offer for the laity is the cultivation of the Dana: donations for the monks and worship of sacred relics. Through the act of donation lay followers can acquire the highest religious merit, which accumulates and brings fruits in one of their next lives and will eventually bring them closer to salvation. They can also achieve the so-called “five great benefits” in present life by offering alms food, such as longevity, beauty, happiness in mind and body, bodily strength, great wisdom and insight. Without practicing Dana, one is not able to make any religious progress. That is why important events in the life of a layman cannot be celebrated without the act of donation. Monks are the vessel through which laity can aspire to the better here and after. The most generous donors deserve also the highest respect and prestige in society. Monkhood, due to the vows, is also a kind of sacrum. In this way, both sides are living in symbiosis and depend on each other, materially and spiritually.

And also we should know the role of the monastery as the centre of cultural and social life in the village in Myanmar. Indeed, the monastery in a village is a centre of social life. It is supported through the joint effort of the whole village community. Monasteries in Burma have always been centres for education for the people. In pre-colonial times, Burmese society was, like few other Asian societies, liter-ate. During colonial rule (1886- 1948), the role of monasteries was partly weakened due to Christian missionary schools and educational reform, but since independence in 1948 and through the turbulent modern history of an independent state, they are still fulfilling the educational role. In contemporary Myanmar, the state is not able to guarantee access to free education for all and rather tries to adapt existing monastic centres. If they can secure the basic standards, they are registered as self-reliance schools within the state education system and their pupils can sit for state examinations. Monastic schools not only educate a new generation of novices, but they also widen the curriculum for other children. They usually accept all village children who cannot afford to go to a state school or who have difficult access regarding distance. The education in a monastic school is free, often accompanied by free meals and lodging. Myanmar monasteries are also a place for preservation and transmission of Myanmar cultural heritage. The children are taught basic morals and civics, social rights and duties towards the others. What is also stunning is that Myanmar’s temples are a place of rest and enjoyment. It is indeed a place of refuge for villagers. People come to the monastery to take a rest after work, to give offerings to the monks, meditate or seek for religious or mundane advice. Monastery buildings are usually of better quality and provided with better equipment than any of the village houses. It is possible that the monastery is the only place in the village with electricity, and, what is more, radio or television is available. It is the first place where all the news is received and distributed. I shall discuss above mentioned importance of Mutual exchange between Sangha and lay society in Myanmar and the role of the monastery as the centre of cultural and social life in the village in Myanmar as possible as available from references.

Ashin Sutacaralankara(Ph.D Thesis)

ေမ့သားလွ(ဇလဂၢ)

Nalanda University

India

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